Valorisation of macroalgae for biofuels in Indonesia: an integrated biorefinery approach

Globally, bioenergy development depends on the efficacy and affordability of conversion technologies and the availability of renewable biomass sources. As a tropical country, Indonesia has a wide range of biomass sources, either from land or marine biomass (i.e. macroalgae). The current estimation of macroalgae potential in Indonesia is estimated at approximately 9.96 million tonnes or about 26.86% share of world production in 2021. Specifically, marine macroalgae (wild or cultivated) have received attention for their potential as renewable resources for the sustainable bioenergy production, supporting a move towards a circular economy. However, as a developing country, Indonesia still needs to evolve and further advances its technology and skill capacity to address research, development, and innovation challenges in this area. Thus, this paper examines the potential biorefinery approach for application and commercialisation in Indonesia. It discusses cultivation practices and the future direction of the most sustainable and feasible routes for bioenergy production from macroalgae, exploring recent developments, opportunities, and challenges towards circular processes. The study proposed that the biorefining of macroalgae into bioethanol, biogas, compost, and solid fuels, either as mono–or co-production, are potential. Therefore, this paper may offer to narrowing the literature’s gap and adding a new perspective on the adoption of macroalgae-based bioenergy with integrated biorefinery and closed-loop systems approaches.