Empathy and epistemic beliefs empower critical, culturally responsive ChatGPT integration in learning English academic writing

Empathy is increasingly recognized as central to human-centred engagement with generative AI, yet its epistemic pathways remain under examined. This study explored how empathy and Internet Epistemic Beliefs (IEBs) shape undergraduates’ perceptions of ChatGPT in English academic writing across Malaysian and Indonesian contexts. Employing a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, we surveyed 239 English majors, modelled relationships using PLS-SEM, and conducted four in-depth interviews. Empathy significantly predicted positive perceptions of ChatGPT (β =.61) and influenced IEBs (β =.68); however, IEBs mediated this relationship only among Indonesian EFL students, reflecting culturally embedded critical-literacy orientations. Gender analysis revealed a stronger empathy–IEB link among males. Thematic insights identified strategic prompting, synthetic empathy, and shifting institutional norms as mechanisms guiding AI engagement. Findings suggest that empathy, while essential, must be paired with critical epistemic beliefs to support ethical, reflective AI use. This study informs empathy-based digital literacy programs and culturally responsive AI integration in higher education writing contexts.