Distinctive hepatoprotective and anti-inflammation activity of snakefruit vinegar (Salacca zalacca (Gaerth.) Voss) with mixed culture fermentation induced by CCl₄ in Wistar rats

The hepatoprotective efficacy of snakefruit vinegar (Salacca zalacca (Gaerth.) Voss) has not been previously investigated in models of chemically induced liver injury, despite growing interest in the health benefits of fruit vinegars. This study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of snakefruit vinegar produced via single- and mixed-culture fermentation in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatotoxicity rats. Twenty male rats were randomly assigned to four groups: healthy control (K−), CCl₄-induced control (K+), single-culture vinegar treatment (P1), and mixed-culture vinegar treatment (P2). Vinegar was administered orally at 0.75 mL/kg body weight for 28 days, while CCl₄ was injected intraperitoneally during the final 8 days of the intervention. Mixed-culture treatment (P2) significantly reduced serum ALT (43.8 ± 5.94 IU/L), AST (133.6 ± 2.50 IU/L), and MDA (2.18 ± 0.26 mg/L) compared to the CCl₄-only group (76.4 ± 5.13, 249.4 ± 8.26 IU/L, and 6.49 ± 0.54 mg/L, respectively; p < 0.05). Histopathological analysis revealed improved hepatic architecture in P2, with a damage score of 1, versus a score of 3 in the untreated CCl₄ group. Additionally, treatment with snakefruit vinegar downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 (1.56 ± 0.22 and 1.74 ± 0.15 pg/mL, respectively) and upregulated anti-inflammatory IL-10 (1.22 ± 0.28 pg/mL), in contrast to the K+ group (2.80 ± 0.32, 3.36 ± 0.36, and 0.21 ± 0.22 pg/mL; p < 0.05). These findings confirm that snakefruit vinegar, particularly from mixed-culture fermentation, exerts significant hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, and may serve as a promising functional food for liver health.